QUESTION # 1
What topics were addressed by Methodology section of report writing?
Methodology:
Technical procedures for carrying out the study must be explained in a manner appropriate for the reader. It may be useful to supplement the material in this section with more detailed explanation in the appendix. This part of the report should address seven topics:
1. Research design: Was the study exploratory, descriptive, or causal? A specific strategy was used to conduct this study. Why was this particular design suited to the study?
2. Data collection methods: Did the data come from primary sources or secondary sources? How the primary data were collected – survey, experiment, observation? It is possible that multiple techniques may have been used – all these have to be explained.
3. Sample design: What was the target population? What sampling frame was used? What type of sampling was used? What was the selection procedure used?
4. Instrument(s) of data collection: What instrument(s) of data collection was (were) used? Why a particular instrument was selected? Include a copy of each instrument in the appendix.
5. Fieldwork/data collection: How many and what type of fieldworkers were used? What training and supervision did they receive? How was the quality control assured?
6. Analysis: How was the analysis carried out? How was the data reduction handled? Tell about the scoring scheme used. Outline the statistical methods applied for the analysis of the data.
7. Limitations: No report is perfect, so it is important to indicate the report’s limitations. If there were problems with non-response error or sampling procedures, they should be discussed. The discussion of limitations should avoid overemphasizing the weaknesses. Its aim should be to provide a realistic basis for assessing the results.
QUESTION # 2
Write note on bivariate table?
Bivariate Tables
The bivariate contingency table is widely used. The table is based on cross-tabulation (cross-classification); that is the cases are organized in the table on the basis of two variables at the same time. A contingency table is formed by cross-tabulating the two or more variables. It is contingent because the cases in each category of a variable get distributed into each category of a second variable. The table distributes cases into categories of multiple variables at the same time and shows how the cases, by the category of one variable, are “contingent upon” the categories of the other variables.
QUESTION # 3
Enlist data sources in case study?
Data Sources
Usually the following sources are suggested:
• Naturalistic observations (ethnographic studies)
• Interviews
• Life histories
• Tests (Psychological, clinical)
QUESTION # 4
Differentiate between qualitative and quantitative data (3 Marks)
Both qualitative and quantitative researchers use careful, systematic methods to gather high quality data. Yet, differences in the styles of research and the types of data mean they approach the measurement process differently. Designing precise ways to measure variables is a vital step in planning a study for quantitative researchers. Qualitative researchers use wider variety of techniques to measure and create new measures while collecting data. The two approaches to measurement have three distinctions.
One difference between the two styles involves timing. Quantitative researchers extensively think about variables and convert them into specific actions during a planning stage that occurs before and separate from gathering or analyzing data. Measurement for qualitative researchers occurs in the data collection process, and only a little occurs in a separate, planning stage prior to data gathering.
A second difference involves the data itself. Quantitative researchers want to develop techniques that can produce quantitative data (i.e. data in the form of numbers). Thus, the researcher moves from abstract ideas, or variables, to specific data collection techniques to precise numerical information produced by the techniques. The numerical information is an empirical representation of the abstract ideas. Data for qualitative researchers sometimes is in the form of numbers; more often it includes written or spoken word, actions, sounds, symbols, physical objects, or visual images. The qualitative researcher does not convert all observations into a single, common medium such as numbers. Instead he or she develops many flexible, ongoing processes to measure that leaves the data in various shapes, sizes, and forms.
A third difference is how the two styles make such linkages. Quantitative researchers contemplate and reflect on concepts before they gather data. They construct measurement techniques that bridge concepts and data. The measurement techniques define what the data will be and are directions for gathering data.
Qualitative researchers also reflect on ideas before data collection, but they develop many, if not most, of their concepts during data collection activities. Researchers start gathering data and creating ways to measure based what they encounter. As they gather data, they reflect on the process and develop new ideas. The ideas give them direction and suggest new ways to measure.
QUESTION # 5
Define Reliability and Validity (3 Marks)
Reliability
The reliability of a measure indicates the extent to which it is without bias (error free) and hence ensures consistent measurement across time and across the various items in the instrument. In other words, the reliability of a measure is an indication of the stability and consistency with which the instrument measures the concept and helps to assess the ‘goodness” of measure.
Validity
Validity is the ability of an instrument (for example measuring an attitude) to measure what it is supposed to measure. That is, when we ask a set of questions (i.e. develop a measuring instrument) with the hope that we are tapping the concept, how can we be reasonably certain that we are indeed measuring the concept we set out to do and not something else? There is no quick answer.
QUESTION # 6
How would u explain Case Control studies in focus group discussion? (3 Marks)
Case Control studies
It is also possible to select two groups (taking them as cases), one with an effect (study group) and the other without effect (control group). Both the cases are similar except for the effect. One could look at the case of Manga Mandi village, where, a few years back, deformities in the bones of children were observed in one part of the village. Here one could explore the totality of the background of affected and unaffected parts of the locality, each being treated as a unit. One could develop hypothesis by having an in-depth analysis of the affected and unaffected parts.
QUESTION # 7
What do you know about Number and duration in focus group discussion (5 Marks)
Usually focus group have 6-12 members and duration is about 1 and half hour.
QUESTION # 8
What do u know about Statistical Control (5 Marks)
Statistical Control
Showing an association or relationship between two variables is not sufficient to say that an independent variable causes a dependent variable. In addition to temporal order and association, a researcher must eliminate alternative explanations – explanations that can make the hypothetical relationship spurious.
Experimental researchers do this by choosing a research design that physically controls potential alternative explanations for results (i.e. that threaten internal validity).
In non-experimental research, a researcher controls for alternative explanations with statistics. He or she measures possible alternative explanations with control variables, and then examines the control variables with multivariate tables and statistics that help him or her to decide whether a bivariate relationship is spurious. They also show the relative size of the effect of multiple independent variables on dependent variable.
QUESTION # 9
What is the purpose of focus discussion 3
The purpose of an FGD is to obtain in-depth information on concepts, perceptions, and ideas of the group. An FGD aims to be more than a question-answer interaction (Focus group interview is different). Here the idea is that group members discuss the topic among themselves.
QUESTION # 10
How would you define reliability and validity 3
Reliability
The reliability of a measure indicates the extent to which it is without bias (error free) and hence ensures consistent measurement across time and across the various items in the instrument. In other words, the reliability of a measure is an indication of the stability and consistency with which the instrument measures the concept and helps to assess the ‘goodness” of measure.
Validity
Validity is the ability of an instrument (for example measuring an attitude) to measure what it is supposed to measure. That is, when we ask a set of questions (i.e. develop a
measuring instrument) with the hope that we are tapping the concept, how can we be reasonably certain that we are indeed measuring the concept we set out to do and not something else? There is no quick answer.
QUESTION # 11
Briefly discuss the importance of interaction effect in the experimental research with the help of example. 5
The effect of two variables together is likely to be greater than the individual effect of each put together. The idea of an interaction effect is familiar, especially in the area of medicine or illness. As an example, imagine that for a given population of 100 persons, all of the same age and sex, it was found that if all 100 smoked cigarettes the effect would be a lung cancer rate of 20 percent. Assume that for an identical group of 100 persons who did not smoke but lived in a smoggy environment, 10 percent would get lung cancer. Now consider a third identical group of 100 persons all of whom smoke and also live in a smoggy environment. The additive effect of both smoking and smog would be 20 percent plus 10 percent, or a total of 30 percent (30 people) having cancer.
However, imagine that an actual medical survey of the population shows a cancer rate of 37 percent among persons experiencing both smoking and smog. This extra 7 percent can be computed residually as:
Interaction Effect = Total effect – (smoking effect + smog effect) = 37 percent
= 37 percent - (20 percent + 10 percent)
= 37 percent - 30 percent
= 7 percent
QUESTION #12
Describe the tow forms of scientific research method and explain their importance.
5
Scientific research: This method takes an idea or topic and uses the application of science to determine the answers to questions, typically through experimentation. This type of research method is very hands on and relies on result over documentation
Types of Research Used in the Scientific Method There are two basic types of research associated with the scientific method.
Quantitative Research
Quantitative research is based on collecting facts and figures. This type research is common in biology.
Qualitative Research
Qualitative research is based on collecting opinions and attitudes. This type research is common in the social sciences.
QUESTION # 13
Researcher uses the quotations in text while writing literature review during research. You are asked to explain the method to use quotation in text following APA style. 5
Quotations should be given exactly as they appear in the source. The original wording, punctuation, spellings, and italics must be preserved even if they are erroneous. The citation of the source of direct quotation should always include the page number(s) as well as the reference.
Use double quotation marks for quotations in the text. Use single quotation marks to identify the material that was enclosed in double quotation marks in the original source.
If you want to emphasize certain words in the quotation, underline them and immediately after the underlined words, insert within brackets the words: italics added. Use three ellipsis points (…) to indicate that you have omitted material from the original source.
If the quotation is more than 40 words, set in a free-standing style starting on a new line and indenting the left margin a further five spaces. Type the entire quotation double spaced on the new margin, indenting the first line of paragraphs from the new margin.
What topics were addressed by Methodology section of report writing?
Methodology:
Technical procedures for carrying out the study must be explained in a manner appropriate for the reader. It may be useful to supplement the material in this section with more detailed explanation in the appendix. This part of the report should address seven topics:
1. Research design: Was the study exploratory, descriptive, or causal? A specific strategy was used to conduct this study. Why was this particular design suited to the study?
2. Data collection methods: Did the data come from primary sources or secondary sources? How the primary data were collected – survey, experiment, observation? It is possible that multiple techniques may have been used – all these have to be explained.
3. Sample design: What was the target population? What sampling frame was used? What type of sampling was used? What was the selection procedure used?
4. Instrument(s) of data collection: What instrument(s) of data collection was (were) used? Why a particular instrument was selected? Include a copy of each instrument in the appendix.
5. Fieldwork/data collection: How many and what type of fieldworkers were used? What training and supervision did they receive? How was the quality control assured?
6. Analysis: How was the analysis carried out? How was the data reduction handled? Tell about the scoring scheme used. Outline the statistical methods applied for the analysis of the data.
7. Limitations: No report is perfect, so it is important to indicate the report’s limitations. If there were problems with non-response error or sampling procedures, they should be discussed. The discussion of limitations should avoid overemphasizing the weaknesses. Its aim should be to provide a realistic basis for assessing the results.
QUESTION # 2
Write note on bivariate table?
Bivariate Tables
The bivariate contingency table is widely used. The table is based on cross-tabulation (cross-classification); that is the cases are organized in the table on the basis of two variables at the same time. A contingency table is formed by cross-tabulating the two or more variables. It is contingent because the cases in each category of a variable get distributed into each category of a second variable. The table distributes cases into categories of multiple variables at the same time and shows how the cases, by the category of one variable, are “contingent upon” the categories of the other variables.
QUESTION # 3
Enlist data sources in case study?
Data Sources
Usually the following sources are suggested:
• Naturalistic observations (ethnographic studies)
• Interviews
• Life histories
• Tests (Psychological, clinical)
QUESTION # 4
Differentiate between qualitative and quantitative data (3 Marks)
Both qualitative and quantitative researchers use careful, systematic methods to gather high quality data. Yet, differences in the styles of research and the types of data mean they approach the measurement process differently. Designing precise ways to measure variables is a vital step in planning a study for quantitative researchers. Qualitative researchers use wider variety of techniques to measure and create new measures while collecting data. The two approaches to measurement have three distinctions.
One difference between the two styles involves timing. Quantitative researchers extensively think about variables and convert them into specific actions during a planning stage that occurs before and separate from gathering or analyzing data. Measurement for qualitative researchers occurs in the data collection process, and only a little occurs in a separate, planning stage prior to data gathering.
A second difference involves the data itself. Quantitative researchers want to develop techniques that can produce quantitative data (i.e. data in the form of numbers). Thus, the researcher moves from abstract ideas, or variables, to specific data collection techniques to precise numerical information produced by the techniques. The numerical information is an empirical representation of the abstract ideas. Data for qualitative researchers sometimes is in the form of numbers; more often it includes written or spoken word, actions, sounds, symbols, physical objects, or visual images. The qualitative researcher does not convert all observations into a single, common medium such as numbers. Instead he or she develops many flexible, ongoing processes to measure that leaves the data in various shapes, sizes, and forms.
A third difference is how the two styles make such linkages. Quantitative researchers contemplate and reflect on concepts before they gather data. They construct measurement techniques that bridge concepts and data. The measurement techniques define what the data will be and are directions for gathering data.
Qualitative researchers also reflect on ideas before data collection, but they develop many, if not most, of their concepts during data collection activities. Researchers start gathering data and creating ways to measure based what they encounter. As they gather data, they reflect on the process and develop new ideas. The ideas give them direction and suggest new ways to measure.
QUESTION # 5
Define Reliability and Validity (3 Marks)
Reliability
The reliability of a measure indicates the extent to which it is without bias (error free) and hence ensures consistent measurement across time and across the various items in the instrument. In other words, the reliability of a measure is an indication of the stability and consistency with which the instrument measures the concept and helps to assess the ‘goodness” of measure.
Validity
Validity is the ability of an instrument (for example measuring an attitude) to measure what it is supposed to measure. That is, when we ask a set of questions (i.e. develop a measuring instrument) with the hope that we are tapping the concept, how can we be reasonably certain that we are indeed measuring the concept we set out to do and not something else? There is no quick answer.
QUESTION # 6
How would u explain Case Control studies in focus group discussion? (3 Marks)
Case Control studies
It is also possible to select two groups (taking them as cases), one with an effect (study group) and the other without effect (control group). Both the cases are similar except for the effect. One could look at the case of Manga Mandi village, where, a few years back, deformities in the bones of children were observed in one part of the village. Here one could explore the totality of the background of affected and unaffected parts of the locality, each being treated as a unit. One could develop hypothesis by having an in-depth analysis of the affected and unaffected parts.
QUESTION # 7
What do you know about Number and duration in focus group discussion (5 Marks)
Usually focus group have 6-12 members and duration is about 1 and half hour.
QUESTION # 8
What do u know about Statistical Control (5 Marks)
Statistical Control
Showing an association or relationship between two variables is not sufficient to say that an independent variable causes a dependent variable. In addition to temporal order and association, a researcher must eliminate alternative explanations – explanations that can make the hypothetical relationship spurious.
Experimental researchers do this by choosing a research design that physically controls potential alternative explanations for results (i.e. that threaten internal validity).
In non-experimental research, a researcher controls for alternative explanations with statistics. He or she measures possible alternative explanations with control variables, and then examines the control variables with multivariate tables and statistics that help him or her to decide whether a bivariate relationship is spurious. They also show the relative size of the effect of multiple independent variables on dependent variable.
QUESTION # 9
What is the purpose of focus discussion 3
The purpose of an FGD is to obtain in-depth information on concepts, perceptions, and ideas of the group. An FGD aims to be more than a question-answer interaction (Focus group interview is different). Here the idea is that group members discuss the topic among themselves.
QUESTION # 10
How would you define reliability and validity 3
Reliability
The reliability of a measure indicates the extent to which it is without bias (error free) and hence ensures consistent measurement across time and across the various items in the instrument. In other words, the reliability of a measure is an indication of the stability and consistency with which the instrument measures the concept and helps to assess the ‘goodness” of measure.
Validity
Validity is the ability of an instrument (for example measuring an attitude) to measure what it is supposed to measure. That is, when we ask a set of questions (i.e. develop a
measuring instrument) with the hope that we are tapping the concept, how can we be reasonably certain that we are indeed measuring the concept we set out to do and not something else? There is no quick answer.
QUESTION # 11
Briefly discuss the importance of interaction effect in the experimental research with the help of example. 5
The effect of two variables together is likely to be greater than the individual effect of each put together. The idea of an interaction effect is familiar, especially in the area of medicine or illness. As an example, imagine that for a given population of 100 persons, all of the same age and sex, it was found that if all 100 smoked cigarettes the effect would be a lung cancer rate of 20 percent. Assume that for an identical group of 100 persons who did not smoke but lived in a smoggy environment, 10 percent would get lung cancer. Now consider a third identical group of 100 persons all of whom smoke and also live in a smoggy environment. The additive effect of both smoking and smog would be 20 percent plus 10 percent, or a total of 30 percent (30 people) having cancer.
However, imagine that an actual medical survey of the population shows a cancer rate of 37 percent among persons experiencing both smoking and smog. This extra 7 percent can be computed residually as:
Interaction Effect = Total effect – (smoking effect + smog effect) = 37 percent
= 37 percent - (20 percent + 10 percent)
= 37 percent - 30 percent
= 7 percent
QUESTION #12
Describe the tow forms of scientific research method and explain their importance.
5
Scientific research: This method takes an idea or topic and uses the application of science to determine the answers to questions, typically through experimentation. This type of research method is very hands on and relies on result over documentation
Types of Research Used in the Scientific Method There are two basic types of research associated with the scientific method.
Quantitative Research
Quantitative research is based on collecting facts and figures. This type research is common in biology.
Qualitative Research
Qualitative research is based on collecting opinions and attitudes. This type research is common in the social sciences.
QUESTION # 13
Researcher uses the quotations in text while writing literature review during research. You are asked to explain the method to use quotation in text following APA style. 5
Quotations should be given exactly as they appear in the source. The original wording, punctuation, spellings, and italics must be preserved even if they are erroneous. The citation of the source of direct quotation should always include the page number(s) as well as the reference.
Use double quotation marks for quotations in the text. Use single quotation marks to identify the material that was enclosed in double quotation marks in the original source.
If you want to emphasize certain words in the quotation, underline them and immediately after the underlined words, insert within brackets the words: italics added. Use three ellipsis points (…) to indicate that you have omitted material from the original source.
If the quotation is more than 40 words, set in a free-standing style starting on a new line and indenting the left margin a further five spaces. Type the entire quotation double spaced on the new margin, indenting the first line of paragraphs from the new margin.
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